CasGroup - User contributions [en]

Preferential attachment

2012-12-09T21:49:54Z

Jfromm:

A '''preferential attachment''' process is any of a class of processes in which some quantity, typically some form of wealth or credit, is distributed among a number of individuals or objects according to how much they already have, so that those who are already wealthy receive more than those who are not.

It is a process behind the creation of [[Complex Network|complex networks]].

== Links ==

* Wikipedia site for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferential_attachment preferential attachment]

Preferential attachment

2012-12-09T21:48:45Z

Jfromm:

A '''preferential attachment''' process is any of a class of processes in which some quantity, typically some form of wealth or credit, is distributed among a number of individuals or objects according to how much they already have, so that those who are already wealthy receive more than those who are not.

It is a process behind the creation of [[Complex network|complex networks]].

== Links ==

* Wikipedia site for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferential_attachment preferential attachment]

Complex Network

2012-12-09T21:47:37Z

Jfromm: /* Common characteristics */

A '''complex network''' forms the backbone of a [[Complex System|complex system]]: the nodes correspond to the agents, entities or parts of the complex system, the edges to the interactions between them. A network is essentially anything which can be represented by a graph: a set of points, nodes or vertices, connected by links, ties or edges. In social networks, the nodes are people, and the ties between them are (variously) acquaintance, friendship, political alliance or professional collaboration. In [[Multi-Agent System|multi-agent systems]], the nodes are agents, and two nodes are connected if they interact with each other. In [[Distributed Computing|distributed computing]] and [[Distributed System|distributed systems]], the nodes are computers or processes, and the links are channels for messages. In the case of the Internet, the nodes are actual machines, and they are joined by a link when they are physically tied together. In the case of the World Wide Web (WWW), the nodes are Web sites, and they are joined when there is a hyper-link from one to the other, see C.R. Shalizi's Article "Growth, Form, Function, Crashes" below. Complex networks are special networks at the edge of chaos where the degree of connectivity is neither regular nor random. The most complex networks of the real world are either small-world networks or scale-free networks at the border between regular and random networks, between order and randomness.

== Scale-Free Networks ==

A network is named scale-free, if it does not have a certain scale. A network
with a single scale is similar to grid: every node has the same degree or the
same number of links/edges. In a [[scale-free network]], some nodes have a huge number of connections to other nodes, whereas most nodes have only a few. Typically the degree of connectivity can be described by a [[power law]].

According to Mark Newman in [http://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0412004], "when the probability of measuring a particular value of some quantity varies inversely as a power of that value, the quantity is said to follow a power law, also known variously as Zipf's law or the Pareto distribution. The distributions of the sizes of cities, earthquakes, solar flares, moon craters, wars and people's personal fortunes all appear to follow power laws".

Scale-free networks and networks which can be described by power-laws are robust against accidental failures but vulnerable to deliberate attacks against hubs and supernodes.

== Small-World Networks ==

A network is called [[small-world network]] by analogy with the [[small-world phenomenon]], (popularly known as [[six degrees of separation]]). The small world hypothesis,
which has been tested in experiments (see [http://smallworld.columbia.edu/results.html The Small World Project]), is the idea that two arbitrary people are connected by only six degrees of separation, i.e. the diameter of the corresponding graph of social connections
is not much larger than six.

Small-world networks have been described first by Duncan J. Watts and Steven H. Strogatz. They appear to be 'small' because they have a small average and characteristic path length, like random or complete graphs. Yet they can be highly clustered, like regular lattices. They can be found at the edge or boundary between regular networks and random networks, and are created from regular networks through rewiring of a few short cuts.

== Common characteristics ==

Both classes of complex networks, small-world and scale-free networks
are very similar. They can be found at the edge of chaos between
complete randomness and total order. Small-world networks or graphs
emerge through the random rewiring of regular grids or lattices:
''you add randomness to order''. Scale-free networks arise in
networks if ''you add order to randomness'': instead of considering
a pure random growth of a network, you consider a random growth with
[[Preferential attachment|preferential attachment]].

The small-world property can be associated with global connectivity
and the shortest path length, it arises in regular networks through
the addition of random shortcuts.
The scale-free property can be associated with local connectivity,
it arises in random networks through clustering.

== Researchers and Scientists ==

*[http://amaral.chem-eng.northwestern.edu/ L.A.N. Amaral]
*[http://tam.cornell.edu/Strogatz.html Steven Strogatz]
*[http://www.nd.edu/~alb/ Albert-László Barabási]
*[http://smallworld.columbia.edu/watts.html Duncan J. Watts]
*[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~mejn/ Mark Newman]
*[http://www.ingenuitygap.com/ Thomas Homer-Dixon]
== Links ==

*[http://www.nd.edu/~networks Self-Organized Networks]
*[http://www.sfu.ca/~insna/INSNA/Hot/scale_free.htm Scale-Free and Small-World Networks]

== Articles ==

* C.R. Shalizi, ''Growth, Form, Function, Crashes'', Santa Fe Institute Bulletin 15:2 (2000) [http://discuss.santafe.edu/dynamics/stories/storyReader$54]
* C.R. Shalizi, ''Complex Networks'' Notebook-Entry [http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/complex-networks.html]

*L.A.N. Amaral and J.M. Ottino , ''Complex networks - Augmenting the framework for the study of complex systems'', Eur. Phys. J. B 38 (2004) 147-162
*A. Barabasi and E. Bonabeau, ''Scale-Free Networks'', Scientific American, May 2003, 50-59
*K. Wiesenfeld, P. Colet, S.H. Strogatz, ''Exploring Complex Networks'', Nature Vol 410 (2001) 268-276
*D.J. Watts and S. H. Strogatz., ''Collective dynamics of 'small-world' networks'', Nature Vol 393 (1998) 440-442

*M. E. J. Newman [http://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0412004 Power laws, Pareto distributions and Zipf's law]
*M. E. J. Newman [http://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0303516 The structure and function of complex networks]

== Books ==

*Duncan J. Watts, ''Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age'', W. W. Norton & Company, 2003, ISBN 0393041425
*Duncan J. Watts, ''Small Worlds : The Dynamics of Networks between Order and Randomness'', Princeton University Press, 2003, ISBN 0691117047
*Albert-László Barabási, ''Linked: How Everything Is Connected to Everything Else and What It Means'', Plume, 2003, ISBN 0452284392
*Mark Buchanan, ''Nexus: Small Worlds and the Groundbreaking Theory of Networks'', W. W. Norton & Company, 2003, ISBN 0393324427
*E. Ben-Naim, H. Frauenfelder, Z. Toroczkai, ''Complex Networks'', Springer, 2004, ISBN 3540223541

Preferential attachment

2012-12-09T21:46:39Z

Jfromm: Created page with "A '''preferential attachment''' process is any of a class of processes in which some quantity, typically some form of wealth or credit, is distributed among a number of individua..."

A '''preferential attachment''' process is any of a class of processes in which some quantity, typically some form of wealth or credit, is distributed among a number of individuals or objects according to how much they already have, so that those who are already wealthy receive more than those who are not.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia site for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferential_attachment preferential attachment]

Competition

2012-10-05T22:09:30Z

Jfromm:

'''Competition''' is a contest between individuals, groups, animals, etc. for territory, a niche, or a location of resources. It can be caused by scarcity and finiteness of resources on the one hand, and overpopulation or overcrowding on the other hand. In the real world, "resources are finite and hence ultimately scarce" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). This implies competition for the most and best resources among egostic individuals. Competition is the opposite of [[Cooperation|cooperation]], and the natural state among selfish individuals in [[Evolutionary_System|evolutionary systems]], which is responsible for [[Natural Selection|natural selection]]. During a competition, each party tries to stay ahead of the opponent. See also [[Arms Race]].

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition Competition] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest Survival of the fittest]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Extinction

2012-10-05T21:56:20Z

Jfromm:

'''Extinction''' is the state or process of a [[Species|species]], family, or larger group being or becoming extinct. In modern usage, the word refers to "a terminal event in the history of a population, species, or higher taxon" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). Extinction of a [[Species|species]] leaves an empty [[Niche|niche]]. It can happen if the niche or habitat vanishes or if the [[Fitness|fitness]] is not high enough.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia link for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction extinction]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Extinction

2012-10-05T21:55:42Z

Jfromm: Created page with "'''Extinction''' is the state or process of a species, family, or larger group being or becoming extinct. In modern usage, the word refers to "a terminal event in the..."

Niche

2012-10-05T21:50:09Z

Jfromm:

A '''niche''' is a term describing the relational position or place of an agent in the system, for example the place of a species or population in its ecosystem, or the position of a company in the economy. It is a place suited to contain or maintain a certain individual or [[Species|species]]. In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way of life of a species in nature, or in other words a place a species occupies in an environment: the home of the species. Each species is thought to have a separate, unique niche where it is able to live and survive. A geographical nice is a habitat: the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other biological organism.

A niche can be filled by an organism, or it can be empty or vacant. [[Extinction]] of a species leaves a vacant niche. In biology, biologcal organisms and species can exist if they occupy an ecological niche. In the economy, firms and corporations can exist if they occupy a market niche.

Species and organisms which are well [[Adaptation|adapted]] to their niche have a high [[Fitness|fitness]] and a good chance for survival and reproduction. Similar [[Species|species]] may [[Competition|compete]] to occupy the same niche.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia link for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_niche ecological niche]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

Niche

2012-10-05T21:45:27Z

Jfromm:

A '''niche''' is a term describing the relational position or place of an agent in the system, for example the place of a species or population in its ecosystem, or the position of a company in the economy. It is a place suited to contain or maintain a certain individual or [[Species|species]]. In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way of life of a species in nature, a place a species occupies in an environment. Each species is thought to have a separate, unique niche where it is able to live and survive. A geographical nice is a habitat: the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other biological organism.

A niche can be filled by an organism, or it can be empty. In biology, biologcal organisms and species can exist if they occupy an ecological niche. In the economy, firms and corporations can exist if they occupy a market niche.

Species and organisms which are well [[Adaptation|adapted]] to their niche have a high [[Fitness|fitness]] and a good chance for survival and reproduction. Similar [[Species|species]] may [[Competition|compete]] to occupy the same niche.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia link for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_niche ecological niche]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

Species

2012-10-05T21:27:23Z

Jfromm:

A '''species''' is a reproductively isolated, independent evolutionary unit which occupies a certain [[Niche|niche]]. By definition, species are in biology "the lowest-level classifactory or taxonomic unit for biological organisms" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). In biology it is a taxonomic group whose members can interbreed: a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. It is one of the basic units of biological classification.

The two defining features are '''interaction''' and '''similarity''': frequent interaction and interbreeding leads to similar individuals, which can be classified by different taxonomic groups. classes, and categories, and similar individuals more frequently interact than dissimilar ones.

The rise of a new species from an ancestor is called [[Speciation|speciation]]. A number of speciations leads to a [[Phylogenetic_Tree|phylogenetic tree]].

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species species]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Replicator

2012-10-05T21:12:55Z

Jfromm: Created page with " A '''replicator''' is a unit of selection, something which can be replicated and copied. It is used to refer "to any entity of which copies are made" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). A..."

A '''replicator''' is a unit of selection, something which can be replicated and copied. It is used to refer "to any entity of which copies are made" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). A [[Gene|gene]] or a [[Meme|meme]] are examples, because they can be subject of [[Natural Selection|natural selection]].

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Meme

2012-10-05T21:06:10Z

Jfromm:

A meme identifies ideas, practices, traditions or beliefs that are transmitted verbally or by repeated action from one mind to another (from one person or group of people to another person or group of people). It identifies a basic unit of cultural information. The concept comes from an analogy made by Richard Dawkins in his book in The Selfish Gene (1976): as [[Gene|genes]] transmit biological information, memes can be said to transmit idea and belief information. Richard Dawkins initially defined meme as a noun which "conveys the idea of a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation".

== Genes and Memes ==

In analogy with gene, a meme is any form of cultural [[Replicator|replicator]] -
an idea, behavior, style or usage that spreads from person to
person within a culture. In the narrower sense, only those
ideas can be considered as a meme which form a kind of body
as survival mechanism.
Just as genes are the recipes for stringing together
amino acids into proteins, memes are the general recipes
for stringing together independent objects into
coherent systems: ideas into theories, persons into
social systems, and individuals into groups.

Both genes and memes are capable of being copied and replicated.
As an abstract information pattern, a meme is more abstract
and less concrete than a gene, in fact a gene can be considered
as the implementation of a special meme, the idea of a
self-replicating molecule.
Although memes appeared later than genes in evolution, because
they are associated with society, culture, and social systems,
they are indeed more fundamental than genes. They are the
more general and more abstract idea.

== Memetic Bodies ==

Cultural objects can be viewed as constructs of cultural DNA: companies contain [http://gigaom.com/2011/02/10/corporate-dna/ Corporate DNA], social groups and societies are based on a common set of shared customs, laws, and policies. In this sense, both genes and memes are capable of having "bodies". Languages, [[Civilization|civilizations]], [[Complex Society|complex societies]] and [[Mind|minds]] can be considered as memetic bodies, at least to some extent. In principles, any social group which is defined by a set of memes can be considered as a memetic body, similar to a genetic body constructed by [[Gene|genes]].

== Soul Dust ==

A single meme or idea can be considered as the legacy of a civilization or individual person. In the former case it would be "dust of a civilization", in the latter a kind of "soul dust", for example a quote from someone who is no longer living. Although he is no longer living, he has left traces of his existence in this particular sentence.

== Reconstruct a Mind ==

Can we (re-)construct minds from different parts or pieces ? Is there a blueprint for a soul (whatever that is)? If [[Gene|genes]] are blueprints used to construct bodies, then maybe [[Meme|memes]] can be considered as blueprints to construct [[Mind|minds]]. An autobiography is maybe the thing which is perhaps the most similar to such a blueprint. One difference to genetic blueprints is the temporal relationship: genetic blueprints exist before the life of the individual, whereas autobiographies exist only after the life of the individual. During our life, our personality is reinforced and we become more like ourselves.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meme meme]

Fitness

2012-10-05T21:03:11Z

Jfromm: /* Links */

Fitness is the ability to fulfill a particular role or task. In evolutionary biology, '''fitness''' is an individual's ability to propagate its genes, i.e. the ability to leave offspring in its particular environment. It is a measure how good an organism or species is [[Adaptation|adapted]] to its environment. Charles Darwin used the verb "fit" synonymously with "adapt", and the adjective "fitted" with "adapted" or "suitable" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). Fitness in general describes the ability to both survive and reproduce, and can be mesaure in evolutionary systems as survival period or offspring production in a particular environment.

== Links ==

see also

* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_(biology) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_(biology)]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Fitness

2012-10-05T21:02:36Z

Jfromm: /* Links */

Fitness is the ability to fulfill a particular role or task. In evolutionary biology, '''fitness''' is an individual's ability to propagate its genes, i.e. the ability to leave offspring in its particular environment. It is a measure how good an organism or species is [[Adaptation|adapted]] to its environment. Charles Darwin used the verb "fit" synonymously with "adapt", and the adjective "fitted" with "adapted" or "suitable" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). Fitness in general describes the ability to both survive and reproduce, and can be mesaure in evolutionary systems as survival period or offspring production in a particular environment.

== Links ==

see also

* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_(biology)]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Fitness

2012-10-05T21:01:58Z

Jfromm:

Fitness is the ability to fulfill a particular role or task. In evolutionary biology, '''fitness''' is an individual's ability to propagate its genes, i.e. the ability to leave offspring in its particular environment. It is a measure how good an organism or species is [[Adaptation|adapted]] to its environment. Charles Darwin used the verb "fit" synonymously with "adapt", and the adjective "fitted" with "adapted" or "suitable" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). Fitness in general describes the ability to both survive and reproduce, and can be mesaure in evolutionary systems as survival period or offspring production in a particular environment.

== Links ==

see also

* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_%28biology%29]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Fitness

2012-10-05T20:59:53Z

Jfromm:

In evolutionary biology, '''fitness''' is an individual's ability to propagate its genes, i.e. the ability to leave offspring in its particular environment. It is a measure how good an organism or species is [[Adaptation|adapted]] to its environment. Charles Darwin used the verb "fit" synonymously with "adapt", and the adjective "fitted" with "adapted" or "suitable" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). Fitness in general describes the ability to both survive and reproduce, and can be mesaure in evolutionary systems as survival period or offspring production in a particular environment.

== Links ==

see also

* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_%28biology%29]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Fitness

2012-10-05T19:39:36Z

Jfromm: Created page with " In evolutionary biology, '''fitness''' is an individual's ability to propagate its genes. It is a measure how good an organism or species is adapted to its enviro..."

In evolutionary biology, '''fitness''' is an individual's ability to propagate its genes. It is a measure how good an organism or species is [[Adaptation|adapted]] to its environment. Charles Darwin used the verb "fit" synonymously with "adapt", and the adjective "fitted" with "adapted" or "suitable" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). Fitness in general describes the ability to both survive and reproduce, and can be mesaure in evolutionary systems as survival period or offspring production in a particular environment.

== Links ==

see also

* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_%28biology%29]

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Adaptation

2012-10-05T19:32:30Z

Jfromm:

'''Adaptation''' is a response to environmental conditions: the process of adjustment to given (outer) conditions. It refers to a any change in the structure or function of an entity (say, a biological organism or a software system) that allows it to act more effectively, efficiently and successfully in its environment. Originally, the term adapted meant "apt, or suited to, to, some particular purpose or other" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992).

In evolutionary systems, adaptation means the change of traits across generations which increase the [[Fitness|fitness]]. It is the "characteristic of an organism whose form is the result of selection in a particular functional context" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). In physiology, it means physiological adjustments and short-term cdhanges in response to environmental conditions. In anthropology, adaptation is usually defined as the gradual process organisms undergo to achieve a beneficial adjustment to a particular environment (Haviland et al, 2007).

In general it is the ability to learn from experience and describes the process of change and modification in a system that helps to adjust and fit the system to the conditions of the environment. Adaptation is the set of adjustments made by systems in respect of their environments. The adjustments are often controlled by experience and practice. The concept of a change in behavior or structure as a result of experience and practice is related to learning. [[Learning]] is a special form of adaptation for the behavior of intelligent systems.

== Function, Purpose and Niche Occupation ==

Typical for adaptive systems is the existence of a function or purpose: they occupy a niche and play a role, specified by the context of the environment. A snowflake is a beautiful crystal with a complex structure, but it has no particular function or purpose. Biological organisms affected and shaped by evolution have nearly always a function in a larger ecosystem, even the organs of an organism have a particular function. The organs, especially the sense organis, can be adaptive itself. In [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology physiology], adaptation is the responsive adjustment of a sense organ (as the eye) to varying conditions (as of light).

In Pyschology, adaptation describes the process of change in organisms or species to accommodate to a particular environment. It allows us to cope with change, because it is itself related to a change: it is the change of the behavior or strategy of an individual in order to increase the own performance. An example is the balance between [[Exploitation_and_Exploration|exploitation and exploration]] for information processing in changing environments.

In evolutionary [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology biology], adaptation is a physiological process or behavioral trait of an organism that has evolved over a period of time, because it increases the expected long-term reproductive success of the organism. A individual in an evolutionary system adapts to survive: it changes in order to persist. This is related to the [[Red Queen Effect]]: a situation in nature where individuals must adapt constantly to changing environments just to survive.

{{SelfOrg}}

Adaptation occurs in evolution often through [[Natural Selection|natural selection]] at the population level. It is the process of accommodation and adjustment to an ecological or economic niche. While adaptation is the process of being optimized for some function, [[Exaptation|exaptation]] is "meta-adaptation": the adaptation of an existing trait or property for a new function. Exaptation characterizes components, traits and properties which arose as the result of adaptation for one function, and which have later been used for a new function. Though developed for a particular purpose, an organism may eventually use a structure or attribute for a different, or exaptive, purpose.

== Optimization of Fitness ==

Individuals try to occupy their niche in an optimal way, or a driven by [[Evolution|evolutionary forces]] and natural selection to do it. The optimal occupation of a niche is at the maximum (or minimum) of the fitness function. Since optimization means maximization (or minimization) of a certain function, adaptation in evolution is therefore nothing else but optimization of fitness, and optimal occupation of the corresponding niche. Optimization methods are besides [[Evolutionary Algorithm]]s for example Gradient Descent (used in artificial neural networks and "back propagation"), Tabu Search and Simulated Annealing.

== Requirements ==

A necessary condition for adaptation is flexibility or the ability for
reconfiguration. Only a system with a flexible structure is able to evolve
into something new. Decentralized and [[Distributed System|distributed systems]]
with high redundancy and scalability (the ability to growth) are usually more
flexible than centralized systems.

The law of indispensable or [[Ashby Theorems|requisite variety]] from William
Ross Ashby states simply that only variety in a system itself can
successfully counter a variety of disturbances in the environment:
a wide variety of available responses and actions is indispensable
in order to ensure that a system which aims to maintain itself in a
certain state can actually adapt itself satisfactorily if it is
confronted with a wide variety of pertubations from the outside.

This may seem obvious, because a flexible system with many
options is of course better able to cope with change and
changing conditions. In other words, "the larger the variety of
actions available to a control system, the larger the variety
of perturbations it is able to compensate" see [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/REQVAR.html].

It is also clear that sufficient "requisite variety" is already
available in systems with a small numbers of elements, as soon as
those elements can interact in arbitrary ways we get a combinatorial
explosion. Thus the law might say nothing, but nevertheless
there is some truth in it.

== Types and Forms ==

There are various types and forms of adaptations. In biology, the most common form is the adaptation of the physical body by modification of the genetic blueprint. In cultural and military systems, the appearance and the behavior can be modified by other forces as well. In general, deceiving by using camouflage techniques is an adaptation to the expectations of the observer. Lying – deceiving by using words – and acting – pretending by using actions – are a similar adaptation as well, they are all methods to produce what the observer expects to perceive. Camouflage means showing what the observer wants to see, Lying means saying what the listener wants to hear, Acting means doing what the director or screenwriter wants to see:

* [[Camouflage]] is an adaptation of appearance
* Acting is an adaptation of behavior
* Lying is an adaptation of facts

== Examples ==

Adaptation is typical for biological and biologically inspired systems such as neural networks. It is a property of many intelligent systems. Intelligent [[agent|agents]], neural networks and [[Adaptive System|adaptive systems]] are examples of adaptive systems: intelligent agents adapt their behavior, neural networks their connections and weights, and complex adaptive systems in general their components, relations and schemes. As Pattie Maes mentions in [Maes (1994)], "Adaptive means that the agent improves its goal-achieving competence over time."

The time-scale of adaptation can vary massively: in nervous systems and neural networks from seconds to hours, in the immune system hours to days, in business firms months to years, in species days to centuries, and in ecosystems years to millennia (see Holland's Book ''Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity'').

A number of physiological, psychological and sociological phenomena can be considered as adaptation:

* [http://blog.cas-group.net/2008/12/intelligence-as-adpatation/ Intelligence as Adaptation] to '''change''' (i.e. to fast changing environments with unusual, novel or complex challenges, where a small number of fixed responses and rigid reflexes is no longer useful)

* [http://blog.cas-group.net/2008/11/stress-as-adaptation/ Stress as Adaptation] to '''terror''' (i.e. to uncertain and disruptive environments where large peaceful periods are sometimes disrupted by extremely dangerous threats which require immediate reaction)

* [http://blog.cas-group.net/2008/11/shame-as-adaptation/ Shame as Adaptation] to social '''punishment''' (i.e. to societies and situations which impose high costs on defectors)

* [http://blog.cas-group.net/2008/10/corruption-as-adaptation/ Corruption as Adaptation] to institutional weakness (i.e. to societies where the courts and the police are not working well, where the general income of officials is low, the potential gain of disloyal behavior high, and the expected penalty low)

* [http://blog.cas-group.net/2008/10/terror-as-adaptation/ Terror as Adaptation] to imperial behavior and '''imperialism''' (i.e. to the global dominance of a selfish superpower).

* [http://blog.cas-group.net/2008/10/depression-as-adaptation/ Depression as Adaptation] to desperate and hopeless situations (i.e. to situations and environments where continued effort to pursue a certain goal will result in either danger or loss of valuable resources.)

* [http://blog.cas-group.net/2008/09/arrogance-as-adaptation/ Arrogance as Adaptation] to obstrusive behavior and '''obtrusiveness'''

* [http://blog.cas-group.net/2010/01/underground-economy-as-adaptation/ Underground Economy as Adaptation] to failure of a weak economy

== Relations ==

Adaptation is related to homeostasis, the process of
maintaining a system at a constant, stable state
in a changing and instable environment.
It allows a system to maintain consistent
and suitable behavior despite clearly visible
variations and differences in different operating
contexts and environments.
Homeostasis is based on regulatory and [[Feedback|feedback]]
mechanisms, whereas adaptation is more related to
structural adjustments of the system.

The process of adaptation is often connected to an increase in [[Complexity|complexity]] and acquisition of information from the environment or in other words to learning, but also to specialization and differentiation.

Adaptation is also related to optimization,
since an organism adapted to a certain (ecological)
niche is optimal suited to fulfil the corresponding
task most efficiently.

== Articles ==

* [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/42923.html Modeling Adaptive Autonomous Agents], Pattie Maes (1994)

* Richard B. Mazess, [http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant475/Readings/r3.pdf Biological Adaptation: Aptitudes and Acclimatization ], in Watts, E.S., F.E. Johnston, and G.W. Lasker. 1975. Biosocial Interrelations in Population Adaptation. The Hague:MoutonPublishers. pp. 9-18.

== Books ==

* Lashon Booker (Editor), ''Perspectives on Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems'', (Proceedings Volume in the Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity), Oxford Univ Press (2005) ISBN 0195162935

* John H. Holland, ''Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity'', Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1996, ISBN 0201442302

* John H. Holland, ''Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence'', The MIT Press, 1992, ISBN 0262581116

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

* William A. Haviland, Harald E. L. Prins, Bunny McBride, Dana Walrat, "Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge", Wadsworth Publishing, 2007

== Links ==

* Notebook entries for [http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/adaptation.html Adaptation]

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Group Selection

2012-10-05T19:21:20Z

Jfromm:

[[Natural Selection|Natural selection]] and [[Adaptation|adaptation]] can occur on a variety of levels. '''Group selection''' is the [[Natural Selection|natural selection]] of group characteristics on the level of the group. It happens through the interaction of two distinct evolutionary processes on two different scales: the level of the gene, and the level of group (or meme). It is a special case of [[Multilevel Selection|multilevel selection]], where two processes of [[Natural Selection|natural selection]] interact with each other. In group selection, different forms of replicators support each other: genes increase the fitness of the memes in the groups of the individuals, and memes increase in turn the fitness of genes in their groups.

As David Sloan Wilson has observed, "what is adpative at one level may be maladaptive at another" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). What is good for the group can be bad for the individual and vice versa.

== Links ==

see also
* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_selection Group Selection]

* Nicholas S. Thompson, [http://www.behavior.org/journals_BP/2000/thompson.pdf Shifting the Natural Selection Metaphor to the Group Level], Behavior and Philosophy, 28, 83-101 (2000)

* David S. Wilson & Elliott Sober, [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.wilson.html Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences], Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (4) (1994) 585-654

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Group Selection

2012-10-05T19:20:48Z

Jfromm:

[[Natural Selection|natural selection]] and [[Adaptation|adaptation]] can occur on a variety of levels. '''Group selection''' is the [[Natural Selection|natural selection]] of group characteristics on the level of the group. It happens through the interaction of two distinct evolutionary processes on two different scales: the level of the gene, and the level of group (or meme). It is a special case of [[Multilevel Selection|multilevel selection]], where two processes of [[Natural Selection|natural selection]] interact with each other. In group selection, different forms of replicators support each other: genes increase the fitness of the memes in the groups of the individuals, and memes increase in turn the fitness of genes in their groups.

As David Sloan Wilson has observed, "what is adpative at one level may be maladaptive at another" (Keller and Lloyd, 1992). What is good for the group can be bad for the individual and vice versa.

== Links ==

see also
* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_selection Group Selection]

* Nicholas S. Thompson, [http://www.behavior.org/journals_BP/2000/thompson.pdf Shifting the Natural Selection Metaphor to the Group Level], Behavior and Philosophy, 28, 83-101 (2000)

* David S. Wilson & Elliott Sober, [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.wilson.html Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences], Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (4) (1994) 585-654

== References ==

* Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd, "Keywords in Evolutionary Biology", Harvard University Press, 1992

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Path Dependence

2012-09-15T09:01:38Z

Jfromm:

{{SelfOrg}}

'''Path dependence''' exists when the outcome of a process depends on its past history, and is certainly a property of many [[Complex Adaptive System|complex adaptive systems]]. It occurs when taking one choice precludes another and influences the next. Apparently, [[Adaptive_System|adaptive systems]] are [[Context Dependence|context dependent]]. Repeated [[Context Dependence|context dependence]] can lead to path dependence if the context-dependent changes are permanent and durable. In this case the behavior in the current situation depends on the previous behaviors of the system during the history of existence, rather than simply on current conditions. Or to put it in other words, Path dependence is the idea that history matters.

Path dependence exists in a world of possibilities which depends on previous choices, if the kinds of doors we can go through depends on the kinds of doors we have opened before. Decisions in the current moment depend on decisions made in the past. Depending on the path, trail and trajectory of the system, the behavior, experience and outcomes may vary.

Thus path-dependent behavior occurs generally in [[Adaptive_System|adaptive systems]], if microscopic perturbations, minor fluctuations and small differences in local conditions are amplified and reinforced to macroscopic differences, especially in systems with positive feedback. Strong path dependence can be found often in systems with strong positive [[Feedback|feedback]] and is related to the [[Butterfly Effect|butterfly effect]], [[Lever_Point|lever points]] and [[Frozen Accident|frozen accidents]].

Econmic examples are the QWERTY layout in typewriters which is still used in computer keyboards, or file line endings for different operating systems (originally CRLF in Windows, and in LF in Linux and CR in Mac).

Phenomenal [[Consciousness|consciousness]] and [[Subjectivity|subjective experience]] are path-dependent and vary strongly from person to person, because each person has a different history, has met different people during the past, and is adapted to a slighty different world.

Path dependence is quite similar to Murray Gell-Mann's [[Frozen_Accident|frozen accidents]] and John H. Holland's [[Lever_Point|lever points]], although both focus more on the beginning of the path than on the path itself.

== References and Links ==

* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_dependence Main Wikipedia Entry for Path Dependence]
* C2 Wiki [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PathDependence Entry for Path Dependence]

* Notebook entries for [http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/qwerty.html QWERTY, Lock-In and Path Dependence]
* Financial Times Lexicon entry for [http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=path-dependence Path Dependence]

[[Category:Basic Principles]]

Path Dependence

2012-09-15T08:57:34Z

Jfromm:

{{SelfOrg}}

'''Path dependence''' exists when the outcome of a process depends on its past history, and is certainly a property of many [[Complex Adaptive System|complex adaptive systems]]. It occurs when taking one choice precludes another and influences the next. Apparently, [[Adaptive_System|adaptive systems]] are [[Context Dependence|context dependent]]. Repeated [[Context Dependence|context dependence]] can lead to path dependence if the context-dependent changes are permanent and durable. In this case the behavior in the current situation depends on the previous behaviors of the system during the history of existence, rather than simply on current conditions. Path dependence exists in a world of possibilities which depends on previous choices, if the kinds of doors we can go through depends on the kinds of doors we have opened before. Depending on the path of the system, the behavior, experience and outcomes may vary.

Thus path-dependent behavior occurs generally in [[Adaptive_System|adaptive systems]], if microscopic perturbations, minor fluctuations and small differences in local conditions are amplified and reinforced to macroscopic differences, especially in systems with positive feedback. Strong path dependence can be found often in systems with strong positive [[Feedback|feedback]] and is related to the [[Butterfly Effect|butterfly effect]], [[Lever_Point|lever points]] and [[Frozen Accident|frozen accidents]].

Econmic examples are the QWERTY layout in typewriters which is still used in computer keyboards, or file line endings for different operating systems (originally CRLF in Windows, and in LF in Linux and CR in Mac).

Phenomenal [[Consciousness|consciousness]] and [[Subjectivity|subjective experience]] are path-dependent and vary strongly from person to person, because each person has a different history, has met different people during the past, and is adapted to a slighty different world.

Path dependence is quite similar to Murray Gell-Mann's [[Frozen_Accident|frozen accidents]] and John H. Holland's [[Lever_Point|lever points]], although both focus more on the beginning of the path than on the path itself.

== References and Links ==

* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_dependence Main Wikipedia Entry for Path Dependence]
* C2 Wiki [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PathDependence Entry for Path Dependence]

* Notebook entries for [http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/qwerty.html QWERTY, Lock-In and Path Dependence]
* Financial Times Lexicon entry for [http://lexicon.ft.com/Term?term=path-dependence Path Dependence]

[[Category:Basic Principles]]

Culture

2012-05-14T22:44:28Z

Jfromm:

: "Culture is roughly everything we do and monkeys don’t." ~ FitzRoy Richard

Culture is an abstract concept with a variety of meanings. In anthropology and systems theory, culture is a central and unifying concept. Here culture is defined as the set of learned behaviors and ideas (including beliefs, attitudes, values, customs, and ideals) that are characteristic of a particular society, social group or population. In short, as the attitudes and behavior characteristic of a particular social group. Anthropologists define it in a broad way as "everything that people have, think, and do as members of a society" (Gary Ferraro and Susan Andreatta in "Cultural Anthropology").

[[Cultural Evolution|Cultural evolution]] describes how cultures, [[Civilization|civilizations]] and [[Complex Society|complex societies]] have developed over time.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture culture]

[[Category:Evolutionary Systems]] [[Category:Social Systems]]

Culture

2012-05-14T22:42:26Z

Jfromm:

: "Culture is roughly everything we do and monkeys don’t." ~ FitzRoy Richard

Culture is an abstract concept with a variety of meanings. In anthropology and systems theory, culture is a central and unifying concept. Here culture is defined as the set of learned behaviors and ideas (including beliefs, attitudes, values, customs, and ideals) that are characteristic of a particular society, social group or population. In short, as the attitudes and behavior characteristic of a particular social group. Anthropologists define it in a broad way as "everything that people have, think, and do as members of a society" (Gary Ferraro and Susan Andreatta in "Cultural Anthropology").

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture culture]

[[Category:Evolutionary Systems]] [[Category:Social Systems]]

Culture

2012-05-14T22:42:12Z

Jfromm:

: Culture is roughly everything we do and monkeys don’t.” ~ FitzRoy Richard

Culture is an abstract concept with a variety of meanings. In anthropology and systems theory, culture is a central and unifying concept. Here culture is defined as the set of learned behaviors and ideas (including beliefs, attitudes, values, customs, and ideals) that are characteristic of a particular society, social group or population. In short, as the attitudes and behavior characteristic of a particular social group. Anthropologists define it in a broad way as "everything that people have, think, and do as members of a society" (Gary Ferraro and Susan Andreatta in "Cultural Anthropology").

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture culture]

[[Category:Evolutionary Systems]] [[Category:Social Systems]]

Culture

2012-05-14T22:36:49Z

Jfromm:

Culture is an abstract concept with a variety of meanings. In anthropology and systems theory, culture is a central and unifying concept. Here culture is defined as the set of learned behaviors and ideas (including beliefs, attitudes, values, customs, and ideals) that are characteristic of a particular society, social group or population. In short, as the attitudes and behavior characteristic of a particular social group.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture culture]

[[Category:Evolutionary Systems]] [[Category:Social Systems]]

Complex Society

2012-05-14T22:36:12Z

Jfromm:

A '''complex society''' or civilization is a society in an advanced
state of social development, e.g., with complex legal and political
and religious organizations. In anthropology civilizations are
essentially [[Culture|cultures]] that have cities.
A civilization is often characterized by advanced agriculture, occupational
specialization, urbanism and urban centers, and highly developed skills in the arts
and sciences. A '''civilization''' can be considered as an object of
[[Cultural Evolution|cultural evolution]], i.e. as a [[Meme|memetic body]],
as an entity constructed by a set of laws,
rules, and regulations, in short by a set of [[Meme|memes]].
During the course of history, many civilizations, complex societies
and ancient cultures have emerged and collapsed. Romans, Aztecs and
Mayan civilizations appeared and disappeared again, some societies,
city states and cultures vanished without a trace, others have left
a rich heritage. The Maya and the ancient Egyptian left for example
a very rich legacy of temples, palaces and sunken cities.

== Emergence ==

Civilizations and empires can emerge from the integration and
unification of previously distinct autonomous cultures and regions.
People form cultures and civilizations because they have a
benefit from it. They profit from division of labor, protection
and coordinated major projects by a central government, distribution of
surplus resources by central administration. Technological innovations
make larger cultures and higher civilizations possible.

The transition from hunters and gatherers to cattle breeders and farmers
(i.e the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement)
during the Neolithic Revolution was a technological revolution, based
on the emergence of agriculture. New agricultural technologies were
invented, including irrigation and drainage, which made animals and
plants the objects of a food-producing industry. More advanced civilizations
were possible through standardized transportation and writing systems.

The emergence of a new culture is often accompanied either by an
element of force and warfare, if a king conquers a large territory,
or by an element of awe and admiration about collective victories or
common buildings, such as temples, walls, pyramids, etc. Or both.
This awe or admiration is the foundation of the [[Social contract|social contract]]
between individual and society.

So there are several reasons which are responsible for the emergence
of highly developed cultures and ancient civilizations.

* good leadership and military victories: Julius Caesar formed the Roman empire by his military victories, and Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, forged the first Chinese empire by military victories, too

* inspiration by older cultures: the Maya civilization was influenced by Teotihuacan, the Greek by the Egyptians, the Romans by the Greek, etc.

* awe caused by common buildings and monuments: the Chinese wall, the Egyptian pyramids, etc. The ancient Egyptians built the pyramids, but the pyramids also built ancient Egypt, as Mark Lehner said.

== Collapse ==

If civilizations emerge from integration, they can of course
disintegrate again. Just as the emergence of civilizations is
accompanied by awe of the members, collapse is associated
with disgust among the members, for example about the practices of
tyrannic dictators.

There are several reasons which are responsible
for the collapse of highly developed cultures and ancient civilizations.

* environmental problems: Jared Diamond pointed this out in his book "Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed" (2005), namely resource depletion (overhunting, overfishing), environment damages deforestation, pollution) and habitat destruction

* bad leadership and government: Joseph Tainer argued in his book "The Collapse of Complex Societies" (1990) that failure of government and central problem-solving institutions can lead to collapse of societies

* destruction by other civilizations, for example the destruction of Carthage and the Phoenician culture by Rome in 146 BC

The main cause for a collapse are the people themselves.
The end of classic empires and civilizations was not a catastrophe
for everyone involved. Examples are the Roman Empire, the Aztec Empire
and the Maya Civilization. Tainter points in his book "The Collapse of
Complex Societies" that out that many people were actually better off.
If a civilization is in decline, because cultures turn into autocratic
empires that torture their members, sometimes people just don't want
to be member of this system anymore. If the majority of members does
not support the system anymore, it collapses and is replaced by
a different one. Romans and Maya peoples never really disappeared
completely, only the culture and the political power was replaced by
a new culture.

The collapse of a civilization is like a '''divorce of the social contract'''.
The [[Social contract|social contract]] says the individual members have
to obey the laws and common rules, if they want to benefit from public
goods in exchange. At the beginning the individual and the society fall
in love with each other, they admire each other. The individual admires
the achievements of the collective, and the collective (represented by
the king od leader) loves each member because every member increases the
power of the whole community. Children "sign" the social contract by accepting
the rules they learn during socialization. At the end, the individual wants to
break the relationship with the society, it wants to break free. If the
majority of members wants a divorce, the society collapses. In this sense,
a civilization is like a relationship between two people, it lives from
mutual support and affection for each other. Civilizations come to an end
for the same reason that relationships end. Sometimes people just grow apart,
or the magic is no longer there. People no longer feel awe when they see
their pyramid, just a heap of stones.

== Books ==

* Jared Diamond, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collapse:_How_Societies_Choose_to_Fail_or_Succeed Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed], Viking Press, 2005

* Joseph Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies, Cambridge University Press, 1990

== Links ==

* Blog entry for [http://blog.cas-group.net/2010/05/the-end-of-civilization/ The end of civilization(s)]
* Wikipedia entries for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society Society], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization Civilization], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_culture High culture], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_collapse Societal collapse], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_civilization Maya civilization], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rome Ancient Rome], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece Ancient Greece], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia Ancient Mesopotamia] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt Ancient Egypt]

[[Category:Complex Systems]] [[Category:Social Systems]] [[Category:Transitions]]

Complex Society

2012-05-14T22:35:55Z

Jfromm:

A '''complex society''' or civilization is a society in an advanced
state of social development, e.g., with complex legal and political
and religious organizations. In anthropology civilizations are
essentially cultures that have cities.
A civilization is often characterized by advanced agriculture, occupational
specialization, urbanism and urban centers, and highly developed skills in the arts
and sciences. A '''civilization''' can be considered as an object of
[[Cultural Evolution|cultural evolution]], i.e. as a [[Meme|memetic body]],
as an entity constructed by a set of laws,
rules, and regulations, in short by a set of [[Meme|memes]].
During the course of history, many civilizations, complex societies
and ancient cultures have emerged and collapsed. Romans, Aztecs and
Mayan civilizations appeared and disappeared again, some societies,
city states and cultures vanished without a trace, others have left
a rich heritage. The Maya and the ancient Egyptian left for example
a very rich legacy of temples, palaces and sunken cities.

== Emergence ==

Civilizations and empires can emerge from the integration and
unification of previously distinct autonomous cultures and regions.
People form cultures and civilizations because they have a
benefit from it. They profit from division of labor, protection
and coordinated major projects by a central government, distribution of
surplus resources by central administration. Technological innovations
make larger cultures and higher civilizations possible.

The transition from hunters and gatherers to cattle breeders and farmers
(i.e the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement)
during the Neolithic Revolution was a technological revolution, based
on the emergence of agriculture. New agricultural technologies were
invented, including irrigation and drainage, which made animals and
plants the objects of a food-producing industry. More advanced civilizations
were possible through standardized transportation and writing systems.

The emergence of a new culture is often accompanied either by an
element of force and warfare, if a king conquers a large territory,
or by an element of awe and admiration about collective victories or
common buildings, such as temples, walls, pyramids, etc. Or both.
This awe or admiration is the foundation of the [[Social contract|social contract]]
between individual and society.

So there are several reasons which are responsible for the emergence
of highly developed cultures and ancient civilizations.

* good leadership and military victories: Julius Caesar formed the Roman empire by his military victories, and Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, forged the first Chinese empire by military victories, too

* inspiration by older cultures: the Maya civilization was influenced by Teotihuacan, the Greek by the Egyptians, the Romans by the Greek, etc.

* awe caused by common buildings and monuments: the Chinese wall, the Egyptian pyramids, etc. The ancient Egyptians built the pyramids, but the pyramids also built ancient Egypt, as Mark Lehner said.

== Collapse ==

If civilizations emerge from integration, they can of course
disintegrate again. Just as the emergence of civilizations is
accompanied by awe of the members, collapse is associated
with disgust among the members, for example about the practices of
tyrannic dictators.

There are several reasons which are responsible
for the collapse of highly developed cultures and ancient civilizations.

* environmental problems: Jared Diamond pointed this out in his book "Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed" (2005), namely resource depletion (overhunting, overfishing), environment damages deforestation, pollution) and habitat destruction

* bad leadership and government: Joseph Tainer argued in his book "The Collapse of Complex Societies" (1990) that failure of government and central problem-solving institutions can lead to collapse of societies

* destruction by other civilizations, for example the destruction of Carthage and the Phoenician culture by Rome in 146 BC

The main cause for a collapse are the people themselves.
The end of classic empires and civilizations was not a catastrophe
for everyone involved. Examples are the Roman Empire, the Aztec Empire
and the Maya Civilization. Tainter points in his book "The Collapse of
Complex Societies" that out that many people were actually better off.
If a civilization is in decline, because cultures turn into autocratic
empires that torture their members, sometimes people just don't want
to be member of this system anymore. If the majority of members does
not support the system anymore, it collapses and is replaced by
a different one. Romans and Maya peoples never really disappeared
completely, only the culture and the political power was replaced by
a new culture.

The collapse of a civilization is like a '''divorce of the social contract'''.
The [[Social contract|social contract]] says the individual members have
to obey the laws and common rules, if they want to benefit from public
goods in exchange. At the beginning the individual and the society fall
in love with each other, they admire each other. The individual admires
the achievements of the collective, and the collective (represented by
the king od leader) loves each member because every member increases the
power of the whole community. Children "sign" the social contract by accepting
the rules they learn during socialization. At the end, the individual wants to
break the relationship with the society, it wants to break free. If the
majority of members wants a divorce, the society collapses. In this sense,
a civilization is like a relationship between two people, it lives from
mutual support and affection for each other. Civilizations come to an end
for the same reason that relationships end. Sometimes people just grow apart,
or the magic is no longer there. People no longer feel awe when they see
their pyramid, just a heap of stones.

== Books ==

* Jared Diamond, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collapse:_How_Societies_Choose_to_Fail_or_Succeed Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed], Viking Press, 2005

* Joseph Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies, Cambridge University Press, 1990

== Links ==

* Blog entry for [http://blog.cas-group.net/2010/05/the-end-of-civilization/ The end of civilization(s)]
* Wikipedia entries for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society Society], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization Civilization], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_culture High culture], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_collapse Societal collapse], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_civilization Maya civilization], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rome Ancient Rome], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece Ancient Greece], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia Ancient Mesopotamia] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt Ancient Egypt]

[[Category:Complex Systems]] [[Category:Social Systems]] [[Category:Transitions]]

Cultural Evolution

2012-05-13T19:34:23Z

Jfromm:

In its broadest sense '''cultural evolution''' describes how [[Culture|cultures]] and [[Complex Society|complex societies]] have developed over time. [[Gene|Genes]] are not the only form of replicators, and biological evolution is not the only form of [[Evolution|evolution]]. There are also [[Meme|memes]] in analogy with genes, and there is also cultural and [[Cosmic Evolution|cosmic evolution]]. Cultural evolution captures the changes in the ways, means, actions, and ideas that form a society, culture or civilization, including their transmission from one generation to another. Human cultures are considered as gradually changing objects, which evolve in the course of time as a result of various cultural processes.

[[Category:Evolutionary Systems]]

Natural Selection

2012-05-13T19:32:03Z

Jfromm:

'''Natural selection''' is a process by which the genotypes in a population that are best adapted to the environment increase in frequency relative to less well-adapted genotypes over a number of generations. It is a process by which biological populations are altered over time, as a result of the propagation of heritable traits that affect the capacity of individual organisms to survive and reproduce. This process is based on competitive situation: many individuals are in selfish competition with each other, and in this struggle of existence, only the fittest survive and reproduce themselves successfully (survival of the fittest).

The idea of natural selection is basically a metaphor: nature selects organisms in a natural way similar to artificial selection in breeding, where animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favored for reproduction. The basic idea is simple: changes in any organism's makeup or behavior will persist or not according to whether they make it more or less likely for that organism and its descendants to survive. Natural selection leads to an [[Adaptation|adaptation]] and accommodation of a species to a certain ecological or economic niche. According to John H. Holland, natural selection can be considered as a selection of persistent combinations from the sea of possibilities:

: "If we equate simplicity to a limited number of "building blocks" (atoms, nucleotides, linguistic phonemes, computer instructions) and complexity to the vast number of ways of combining those building blocks (molecules, DNA, speech, programs), then we open the possibility of deriving complexity from simplicity. Darwinian selection is, from one point of view, the selection of persistent combinations" [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3410/03-ask.html]

The concept of natural selection can be meaningful applied to other [[Units_of_selection|units of selection]], often characterized by
different scopes and levels, see [[Kin Selection]], [[Group Selection]] and [[Multilevel Selection]], if these levels are influenced by replicators. Natural selection acts on the genotype and selects always something which is replicated. This replicator can be a gene or meme.

== Relaxed Selection ==

According to Terry Deacon, relaxed selection is a special
form of natural selection, where the selection
pressure and the competition is low (i.e. where
natural selection itself is nearly absent), and the
variety of traits which are able to survive and
reproduce is high. When the selection pressures lift,
genomes go wandering and new, unexpected traits may
arise. I think if there is a "relaxed selection",
then it one can also speak of a "fierce selection":
a natural selection with fierce competition when
the climate is harsh and the food is sparse. Under
this conditions only the best, well adapted individuals
survive.

Does natural selection occur in different degrees?
According to Nicholas S. Thompson, Emeritus Professor
of Psychology and Ethology, Clark University, this
kind of selection would be associated with expansion
and contraction of populations: rapid expansion of
populations (when selection is relaxed) vs. rapid
contraction of populations (when selection is intensified).

* During "relaxed selection" or "facilitated variation", the system enters an exploration phase: the chances of finding new configurations, traits and features are higher. The selection pressure for a species to remain in the corresponding niche is lower. The population is expanding and growing rapidly. Variation is facilitated.

* During "fierce selection" or "impeded variation", the system enters an exploitation phase: chances of optimizing existing configurations, traits and features are higher. The selection pressure for a species to remain in the corresponding niche is higher. The population is contracting and shrinking rapidly. Variation is impeded.

== Links ==

* Christine Kenneally, "As if from nowhere", New Scientist 27 Sep 2008 (''article about the topic of "relaxed selection", a concept invented by Terry Deacon. Terry Deacon is an anthropology professor at Berkeley'')

* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection Natural Selection]

* [http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2008/10/how_we_evolve_1.php Seed Magazine article] about human evolution and relaxed selection

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Group Selection

2012-05-13T19:26:08Z

Jfromm:

'''Group selection''' is the [[Natural Selection|natural selection]] of group characteristics. It happens through the interaction of two distinct evolutionary processes on two different scales: the level of the gene, and the level of group (or meme). It is a special case of [[Multilevel Selection|multilevel selection]], where two processes of [[Natural Selection|natural selection]] interact with each other. In group selection, different forms of replicators support each other: genes increase the fitness of the memes in the groups of the individuals, and memes increase in turn the fitness of genes in their groups.

== Links ==

see also
* Wikipedia Entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_selection Group Selection]

* Nicholas S. Thompson, [http://www.behavior.org/journals_BP/2000/thompson.pdf Shifting the Natural Selection Metaphor to the Group Level], Behavior and Philosophy, 28, 83-101 (2000)

* David S. Wilson & Elliott Sober, [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.wilson.html Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences], Behavioral and Brain Sciences 17 (4) (1994) 585-654

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Culture

2012-05-13T19:23:37Z

Jfromm:

Culture

2012-05-13T19:22:18Z

Jfromm:

Culture

2012-05-13T19:21:32Z

Jfromm:

Culture is an abstract concept with a variety of meaning. In anthropology and systems theory, culture is a central and unifying concept. Here culture is defined as the set of learned behaviors and ideas (including beliefs, attitudes, values, customs, and ideals) that are characteristic of a particular society, social group or population.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture culture]

Culture

2012-05-13T19:21:19Z

Jfromm: Created page with " Culture is an abstract with a variety of meaning. In anthropology and systems theory, culture is a central and unifying concept. Here culture is defined as the set of learned be..."

Culture is an abstract with a variety of meaning. In anthropology and systems theory, culture is a central and unifying concept. Here culture is defined as the set of learned behaviors and ideas (including beliefs, attitudes, values, customs, and ideals) that are characteristic of a particular society, social group or population.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture culture]

Cultural Evolution

2012-05-13T19:14:59Z

Jfromm:

In its broadest sense '''cultural evolution''' describes how [[Culture|cultures]] and [[Complex Society|complex societies]] have developed over time. [[Gene|Genes]] are not the only form of replicators, and biological evolution is not the only form of [[Evolution|evolution]]. There are also [[Meme|memes]] in analogy with genes, and there is also cultural and [[Cosmic Evolution|cosmic evolution]]. Cultural evolution captures the changes in the ways, means, actions, and ideas that form a society, including their transmission from one generation to another. Human cultures are considered as gradually changing objects, which evolve in the course of time as a result of various cultural processes.

[[Category:Evolutionary Systems]]

Species

2012-05-13T19:13:04Z

Jfromm:

A '''species''' is a reproductively isolated, independent evolutionary unit which occupies a certain niche.
In biology it is a taxonomic group whose members can interbreed: a group of living organisms consisting of
similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding.
It is one of the basic units of biological classification.

The rise of a new species from an ancestor is called [[Speciation|speciation]].

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species species]

[[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Speciation

2012-05-13T19:12:37Z

Jfromm:

'''Speciation''' is the [[Evolution|evolutionary]] process by which new distinct [[Species|species]] arise in [[Evolutionary System|evolutionary systems]]. A species is a reproductively isolated, independent evolutionary unit which occupies a certain [[Niche|niche]]. The biologist Orator F. Cook seems to have been the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or 'cladogenesis,' as opposed to 'anagenesis' or 'phyletic evolution' occurring within lineages. In the course of [[Evolution|evolution]], a lineage of a species can split into two or more. The branching or [[Bifurcation|bifurcation]] points in the [[Phylogenetic Tree|phylogenetic tree]] mark the speciation events, where a new species emerges. A main reason for speciation in biology is geographical and reproductive isolation.

[[Image:Speciation_modes.png|right|thumb|300px|Comparison of allopatric, peripatric, parapatric and sympatric speciation. Pictures was drawn by Ilmari Karonen and is from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Speciation_modes.svg Wikipedia]]]

The major cause of speciation in biological systems is geographical separation or isolation, the four major types of speciation in nature are based on the extent to which speciating populations are geographically isolated from one another: allopatric (very strong), peripatric (strong), parapatric (weak), and sympatric (zero). Allopatric speciation involves barrier formation or complete habitat fragmentation, peripatric speciation a small niche at the periphery of the system, parapatric speciation a new niche connected to the system, and sympatric speciation a new niche inside the population.

The major cause of speciation in economic systems is technological isolation or innovation. A new technology can create whole new markets and new "ecosystems".

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation Speciation]

* [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_44 Reproductive isolation]

* A seminal paper from John Maynard Smith on speciation, touching upon the dogma that speciation requires geographical separation [http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/maynardsmith/pdf/1962.pdf Disruptive selection, polymorphism and sympatric speciation]

[[Category:Evolutionary Principles]]

Species

2012-05-13T19:12:02Z

Jfromm:

Species

2012-05-13T19:11:44Z

Jfromm: Created page with " A '''species''' is a reproductively isolated, independent evolutionary unit which occupies a certain niche. In biology it is a taxonomic group whose members can interbreed: a gr..."

A '''species''' is a reproductively isolated, independent evolutionary unit which occupies a certain niche.
In biology it is a taxonomic group whose members can interbreed: a group of living organisms consisting of
similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding.
It is one of the basic units of biological classification.

The rise of a new species from an ancestor is called [[Speciation speciation]].

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species species]

Swarm Intelligence

2012-05-13T18:56:58Z

Jfromm: /* Advantages and drawbacks */

'''Swarm Intelligence''' is a form of [[Collective Intelligence|collective intelligence]] in [[Swarm|swarms]]. It is a general term of the flexible, adaptive and collective behavior found in swarms, flocks, herds and other groups of social animals, especially for social insects such as ants, termites, locusts, wasps, and honey bees. Examples of systems with swarm intelligence can be found in all kind of animal groups: schools of fish, flocks of birds, herds of land animals.

[[Image:SwarmIntelligence.png|thumb|500px|Swarm-Intelligence in relation to stigmergy, swarm-formation and emergence]]

== Definition and History ==

Systems which exhibit swarm intelligence are composed of many individuals coordinated by decentralized control and self-organization. Swarm Intelligence is traditionally understood as "the [[Emergence|emergent]] collective intelligence of groups of simple [[Agent|agents]]" (Bonabeau et al. 1999). It is the typical example of [[Emergence|emergence]] and [[Emergence|emergent phenomena]]. The expression "swarm intelligence" was introduced by G. Beni and U. Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems. In these systems many simple agents occupy one- or two-dimensional environments to generate patterns and self-organize through nearest-neighbor interactions. Bonabeau, Dorigo and Theraulaz extend Beni et al.'s definition in their "Swarm Intelligence" book, and include any attempt to design algorithms or distributed problem-solving devices inspired by the collective behavior of social insect colonies and other animal societies.

== Forms and Relations ==

{{SelfOrg}}

The concept of swarm intelligence is related to the two basic concepts of [[Stigmergy|stigmergy]] and [[Emergence|emergence]], which describe the appearance of organized behavior patterns in groups of individuals. A group of individuals follows the "acts as one" or "acts as swarm" pattern: fireflies flashing in synchrony follow the rule, “I signal when you signal”, fish traveling in schools abide by the rule, “I go where you go”, birds flying in [[Flocking|flocks]] follow the rule "I fly where you fly" and so forth. Coordination of collective behavior is not possible without communication. This communication is of course not always evident and visible. Sometimes the communication takes place in a direct way (for example by visual contact), sometimes the communication happens indirectly with the help of the environment (for example by invisible scents).

[[Image:swarm_intelligence_and_stigmergy.png|left|thumb|400px|Swarm-Formation vs. Swarm-Intelligence]]

There are two basic forms of swarm intelligence: (1) swarm-formation and (2) stigmergy. The term swarm-formation describes the first basic form of swarm intelligence and characterizes the creation of swarms, [[Flocking|flocks]] or groups by direct interaction, as it can be observed in flocks of birds, schoals of fish, etc. The rules are simple: stay close to the group, but don't come too close to individuals. The principle of swarm formation is based on a distinction between global and local, group and agent, swarm and individual: global attraction (move towards the group) combined with local repulsion (stay aways from individuals). It can be described by the [[Boids_Model|boids model]] of Craig Reynolds.

[[Stigmergy]] is the second basic form of swarm intelligence. Swarm intelligence and [[Stigmergy|stigmergy]] are often used synonymously and describe swarms and groups which are controlled by indirect interaction over the environment, for example in ant colonies. Ant colonies and other social insects use pheromones and scents to communicate with each other. This form of volatile communication allows the dynamic construction of trails for foraging, and enable a good trade-off between [[Exploitation_and_Exploration|exploitation and exploration]] of food sources in the surrounding environment.

While the principle of stigmergy explains for example trail formation with the purpose of collective foraging, the principle of swarm formation explains the aggregation and group formation with the purpose of collective movement. Both forms and principles can be considered as a case of emergence. [[Emergence|Emergence]] is the general term which describes the appearance of macroscopic phenomena out of mircoscopic interactions.

== Examples ==

Large animal groups with coordinated movement such as swarms, herds,
schools, and flocks are widespread phenomena in biology.
These coherent, large-scale groups often bring negative consequences for
the individual (increased competition for resources, disease transmission,
and attention from predators), but also benefits (more effective foraging,
reproduction, migration, diluting the chance of capture and escape from
predators).

The advantage a swarm offers is often in a delicate balance by a disadvantage.
The swarm can detect a predator better than an individual, but
the predator can also detect a swarm better than a individual animal.
A swarm can detect a food source better than an individual, but
it also exploits it much faster than any individual

The coordination relies often on a kind of language, although it can be an unusual one.
Honeybees perform a dance on their return to the hive, known as bee dance or waggle dance.
The information contained in this "dance language" is used to select a new nest site or to
exploit a new food source.
Ants and other insects communicate mainly through "chemical languages": pheromones
and other chemical scents and substances.

* nest building of social insects (wasps, termites: pheromones)
* path finding and food foraging (ants, locusts: pheromones)
* nest site search and nectar foraging (honey bees: waggle dance)
* collective sorting and clustering (ants: change of environment,stigmergy)
* group defense

Among locusts (grashoppers) swarming behaviour is partially a
response to overcrowding. When large numbers of locusts are forced
together in a small area, they being to form a swarm that can travel long
distances consuming lots of vegetation. The critical tipping point is around
20 insects per square metre. Swarms of locusts can be a plague,
because they consume vast amounts of crops.

A swarm of locusts allows more effective migration and travel.
Each member of the swarm expends less energy than a single
locust would spend in normal individual flight. Contrary to
individual locusts, locust swarms can travel up to 100km or
more in a single day.

== Advantages and drawbacks ==

The fascinating thing about swarm intelligence
is that complex collective behavior emerges
from individuals following simple rules.
Swarm-intelligence and emergence are fascinating
because this is not expected or usual behavior,
and the system is fault-tolerant and robust.
The idea of emergence is that simple underlying rules
'''can''' give rise to surprisingly complex structures.
A system '''can''' evolve a large structure from repeated
small-scale interactions between its smaller elements.
But simple rules do not always lead to complex
structures. Individuals following simple rules usually
do not organize themselves at all if there is no
suitable communication and coordination, they lead
to simple collective behavior or chaos and
confusion. True self-organization is the EXCEPTION,
not the RULE. It happens rarely and not
frequently.

Sometimes there are indeed forms and patterns which
emerge from simple rules, but usually they are as simple
as heaps, dunes or ripples. not more. An ant colony
has the form of a heap and the ants are forming "streets".
This is it, they are not building any other complex
structures. The result of countless repeated,
small-scale interactions often is not a big,
global structure, rather a big mess. There are only
a few interesting examples of self-organization:
the flock of birds, the ant colony, etc.

Successfully identifying self-organizing systems
with swarm intelligence or emergent properties is a bit
like lost finding ancient cities or sunken ships with lots of gold.
They are interesting, fascinating and appealing, sometimes
even mysterious. Everybody would like to find or have them,
but it is not easy, the obstacles are very high, and the
interesting cases are very rare and mostly well-known.
Therefore the search for both can be frustrating (in
exceptional cases also very rewarding and pleasing).
Moreover you don't now what you will see until you watch it
yourself, and even if you do, in the interesting cases you
don't know exactly why it has become this way.

Perhaps swarm intelligence would be less mysterious and
fascinating if we could perceive the language which is
used to control it directly, for example if we could
perceive the odors and chemicals directly which are used
by ants for communication. Unlike ants we do not communicate
with chemicals.

== Scientists and Labs ==

Software and Optimization

* [http://iridia.ulb.ac.be/~mdorigo/HomePageDorigo/ Marco Dorigo]
* [http://www.idsia.ch/~luca/ Luca Maria Gambardella]
* [http://hampshire.edu/~lasCCS/ Lee Spector]

Software and Hardware:

* [http://www.unm.edu/~tanner/ Herbert Glenn Tanner]

Hardware and Robotics:

* [http://lis.epfl.ch/member.php?SCIPER=111729 Dario Floreano]
* [http://www5.epfl.ch/swis/page1336.html Alcherio Martinoli]

Biology

* [http://www.stanford.edu/~dmgordon/ Deborah Gordon and The Gordon Lab]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~icouzin/ Iain D. Couzin] and the [http://icouzin.princeton.edu/ Couzin Lab]

==Articles==

Many articles and resources can be found [http://dsp.jpl.nasa.gov/members/payman/swarm/ here].

* Ashley J.W. Ward et al., [http://www.pnas.org/content/108/6/2312.full Fast and accurate decisions through collective vigilance in fish shoals], PNAS Vol. 108 No. 6 (2011) 2312-2315
* Iain D. Couzin, [http://www.princeton.edu/~icouzin/Couzin2009.pdf Collective cognition in animal groups], Trends Cogn Sci 13 (2009) 36–43.
* G. Beni and U. Wang, ''Swarm intelligence in cellular robotic systems'', In NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, Il Ciocco, Tuscany, Italy, 1989.
* Herbert G. Tanner, Ali Jadbabaie and George J. Pappas, [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/tanner03stable.html Stable Flocking of Mobile Agents, Part I: Fixed Topology], [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/563430.html Part II: Dynamic Topology], 2003
* [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/mataric95designing.html Designing and Understanding Adaptive Group Behavior] Maja J. Mataric, 1995
* Andrea Perna et al., [http://arxiv.org/abs/1201.5827 Individual rules for trail pattern formation in Argentine ants (Linepithema humile)], http://arxiv.org/abs/1201.5827

Dance languages and nest site search of honey bees

* [http://bees.ucr.edu/reprints/nature421.pdf How Self-Organization Evolves], P. Kirk Visscher, Nature Vol. 421 (2003) 799-800
* [http://bees.ucr.edu/reprints/nature397.pdf Collective decisions and cognition in bees], P. Kirk Visscher, Scott Camazine, Nature Vol. 397 (1999) 400
* [http://bees.ucr.edu/reprints/eoi.pdf Dance Language], P. Kirk Visscher, in V.H. Resh and R. T. Cardé, eds. Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press (2003) pp. 284-288

==Books==

* Marco Dorigo, Thomas Stützle, ''Ant Colony Optimization'' (2004) The MIT Press, ISBN 0262042193

* Eric Bonabeau, Marco Dorigo, Guy Theraulaz, ''Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems'' (1999) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195131592

* Scott Camazine et al., ''Self-Organization in Biological Systems'' (2003) Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691116245

* James Kennedy and Russell C. Eberhart, ''Swarm Intelligence'', (2001) Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 1558605959

* Mitchel Resnick, ''Turtles, Termites, and Traffic Jams: Explorations in Massively Parallel Microworlds'' (1997) The MIT Press, ISBN 0262181622

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviour swarm behaviour]
* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_animal_behaviour collective animal behaviour]

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Collective Processes]]

Swarm Intelligence

2012-05-13T18:55:24Z

Jfromm: /* Examples */

'''Swarm Intelligence''' is a form of [[Collective Intelligence|collective intelligence]] in [[Swarm|swarms]]. It is a general term of the flexible, adaptive and collective behavior found in swarms, flocks, herds and other groups of social animals, especially for social insects such as ants, termites, locusts, wasps, and honey bees. Examples of systems with swarm intelligence can be found in all kind of animal groups: schools of fish, flocks of birds, herds of land animals.

[[Image:SwarmIntelligence.png|thumb|500px|Swarm-Intelligence in relation to stigmergy, swarm-formation and emergence]]

== Definition and History ==

Systems which exhibit swarm intelligence are composed of many individuals coordinated by decentralized control and self-organization. Swarm Intelligence is traditionally understood as "the [[Emergence|emergent]] collective intelligence of groups of simple [[Agent|agents]]" (Bonabeau et al. 1999). It is the typical example of [[Emergence|emergence]] and [[Emergence|emergent phenomena]]. The expression "swarm intelligence" was introduced by G. Beni and U. Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems. In these systems many simple agents occupy one- or two-dimensional environments to generate patterns and self-organize through nearest-neighbor interactions. Bonabeau, Dorigo and Theraulaz extend Beni et al.'s definition in their "Swarm Intelligence" book, and include any attempt to design algorithms or distributed problem-solving devices inspired by the collective behavior of social insect colonies and other animal societies.

== Forms and Relations ==

{{SelfOrg}}

The concept of swarm intelligence is related to the two basic concepts of [[Stigmergy|stigmergy]] and [[Emergence|emergence]], which describe the appearance of organized behavior patterns in groups of individuals. A group of individuals follows the "acts as one" or "acts as swarm" pattern: fireflies flashing in synchrony follow the rule, “I signal when you signal”, fish traveling in schools abide by the rule, “I go where you go”, birds flying in [[Flocking|flocks]] follow the rule "I fly where you fly" and so forth. Coordination of collective behavior is not possible without communication. This communication is of course not always evident and visible. Sometimes the communication takes place in a direct way (for example by visual contact), sometimes the communication happens indirectly with the help of the environment (for example by invisible scents).

[[Image:swarm_intelligence_and_stigmergy.png|left|thumb|400px|Swarm-Formation vs. Swarm-Intelligence]]

There are two basic forms of swarm intelligence: (1) swarm-formation and (2) stigmergy. The term swarm-formation describes the first basic form of swarm intelligence and characterizes the creation of swarms, [[Flocking|flocks]] or groups by direct interaction, as it can be observed in flocks of birds, schoals of fish, etc. The rules are simple: stay close to the group, but don't come too close to individuals. The principle of swarm formation is based on a distinction between global and local, group and agent, swarm and individual: global attraction (move towards the group) combined with local repulsion (stay aways from individuals). It can be described by the [[Boids_Model|boids model]] of Craig Reynolds.

[[Stigmergy]] is the second basic form of swarm intelligence. Swarm intelligence and [[Stigmergy|stigmergy]] are often used synonymously and describe swarms and groups which are controlled by indirect interaction over the environment, for example in ant colonies. Ant colonies and other social insects use pheromones and scents to communicate with each other. This form of volatile communication allows the dynamic construction of trails for foraging, and enable a good trade-off between [[Exploitation_and_Exploration|exploitation and exploration]] of food sources in the surrounding environment.

While the principle of stigmergy explains for example trail formation with the purpose of collective foraging, the principle of swarm formation explains the aggregation and group formation with the purpose of collective movement. Both forms and principles can be considered as a case of emergence. [[Emergence|Emergence]] is the general term which describes the appearance of macroscopic phenomena out of mircoscopic interactions.

== Examples ==

Large animal groups with coordinated movement such as swarms, herds,
schools, and flocks are widespread phenomena in biology.
These coherent, large-scale groups often bring negative consequences for
the individual (increased competition for resources, disease transmission,
and attention from predators), but also benefits (more effective foraging,
reproduction, migration, diluting the chance of capture and escape from
predators).

The advantage a swarm offers is often in a delicate balance by a disadvantage.
The swarm can detect a predator better than an individual, but
the predator can also detect a swarm better than a individual animal.
A swarm can detect a food source better than an individual, but
it also exploits it much faster than any individual

The coordination relies often on a kind of language, although it can be an unusual one.
Honeybees perform a dance on their return to the hive, known as bee dance or waggle dance.
The information contained in this "dance language" is used to select a new nest site or to
exploit a new food source.
Ants and other insects communicate mainly through "chemical languages": pheromones
and other chemical scents and substances.

* nest building of social insects (wasps, termites: pheromones)
* path finding and food foraging (ants, locusts: pheromones)
* nest site search and nectar foraging (honey bees: waggle dance)
* collective sorting and clustering (ants: change of environment,stigmergy)
* group defense

Among locusts (grashoppers) swarming behaviour is partially a
response to overcrowding. When large numbers of locusts are forced
together in a small area, they being to form a swarm that can travel long
distances consuming lots of vegetation. The critical tipping point is around
20 insects per square metre. Swarms of locusts can be a plague,
because they consume vast amounts of crops.

A swarm of locusts allows more effective migration and travel.
Each member of the swarm expends less energy than a single
locust would spend in normal individual flight. Contrary to
individual locusts, locust swarms can travel up to 100km or
more in a single day.

== Advantages and drawbacks ==

The fascinating thing about swarm intelligence
is that complex collective behavior emerges
from individuals following simple rules.
Swarm-intelligence and emergence are fascinating
because this is not expected or usual behavior,
and the system is fault-tolerant and robust.
The idea of emergence is that simple underlying rules
'''can''' give rise to surprisingly complex structures.
A system '''can''' evolve a large structure from repeated
small-scale interactions between its smaller elements.
But simple rules do not always lead to complex
structures. Individuals following simple rules usually
do not organize themselves at all if there is no
suitable communication and coordination, they lead
to simple collective behavior or chaos and
confusion. True self-organization is the EXCEPTION,
not the RULE. It happens rarely and not
frequently.

Sometimes there are indeed forms and patterns which
emerge from simple rules, but usually they are as simple
as heaps, dunes or ripples. not more. An ant colony
has the form of a heap and the ants are forming "streets".
This is it, they are not building any other complex
structures. The result of countless repeated,
small-scale interactions often is not a big,
global structure, rather a big mess. There are only
a few interesting examples of self-organization:
the flock of birds, the ant colony, etc.

Successfully identifying self-organizing systems
with swarm intelligence or emergent properties is a bit
like lost finding ancient cities or sunken ships with lots of gold.
They are interesting, fascinating and appealing, sometimes
even mysterious. Everybody would like to find or have them,
but it is not easy, the obstacles are very high, and the
interesting cases are very rare and mostly well-known.
Therefore the search for both can be frustrating (in
exceptional cases also very rewarding and pleasing).
Moreover you don't now what you will see until you watch it
yourself, and even if you do, in the interesting cases you
don't know exactly why it has become this way.

== Scientists and Labs ==

Software and Optimization

* [http://iridia.ulb.ac.be/~mdorigo/HomePageDorigo/ Marco Dorigo]
* [http://www.idsia.ch/~luca/ Luca Maria Gambardella]
* [http://hampshire.edu/~lasCCS/ Lee Spector]

Software and Hardware:

* [http://www.unm.edu/~tanner/ Herbert Glenn Tanner]

Hardware and Robotics:

* [http://lis.epfl.ch/member.php?SCIPER=111729 Dario Floreano]
* [http://www5.epfl.ch/swis/page1336.html Alcherio Martinoli]

Biology

* [http://www.stanford.edu/~dmgordon/ Deborah Gordon and The Gordon Lab]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~icouzin/ Iain D. Couzin] and the [http://icouzin.princeton.edu/ Couzin Lab]

==Articles==

Many articles and resources can be found [http://dsp.jpl.nasa.gov/members/payman/swarm/ here].

* Ashley J.W. Ward et al., [http://www.pnas.org/content/108/6/2312.full Fast and accurate decisions through collective vigilance in fish shoals], PNAS Vol. 108 No. 6 (2011) 2312-2315
* Iain D. Couzin, [http://www.princeton.edu/~icouzin/Couzin2009.pdf Collective cognition in animal groups], Trends Cogn Sci 13 (2009) 36–43.
* G. Beni and U. Wang, ''Swarm intelligence in cellular robotic systems'', In NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, Il Ciocco, Tuscany, Italy, 1989.
* Herbert G. Tanner, Ali Jadbabaie and George J. Pappas, [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/tanner03stable.html Stable Flocking of Mobile Agents, Part I: Fixed Topology], [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/563430.html Part II: Dynamic Topology], 2003
* [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/mataric95designing.html Designing and Understanding Adaptive Group Behavior] Maja J. Mataric, 1995
* Andrea Perna et al., [http://arxiv.org/abs/1201.5827 Individual rules for trail pattern formation in Argentine ants (Linepithema humile)], http://arxiv.org/abs/1201.5827

Dance languages and nest site search of honey bees

* [http://bees.ucr.edu/reprints/nature421.pdf How Self-Organization Evolves], P. Kirk Visscher, Nature Vol. 421 (2003) 799-800
* [http://bees.ucr.edu/reprints/nature397.pdf Collective decisions and cognition in bees], P. Kirk Visscher, Scott Camazine, Nature Vol. 397 (1999) 400
* [http://bees.ucr.edu/reprints/eoi.pdf Dance Language], P. Kirk Visscher, in V.H. Resh and R. T. Cardé, eds. Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press (2003) pp. 284-288

==Books==

* Marco Dorigo, Thomas Stützle, ''Ant Colony Optimization'' (2004) The MIT Press, ISBN 0262042193

* Eric Bonabeau, Marco Dorigo, Guy Theraulaz, ''Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems'' (1999) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195131592

* Scott Camazine et al., ''Self-Organization in Biological Systems'' (2003) Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691116245

* James Kennedy and Russell C. Eberhart, ''Swarm Intelligence'', (2001) Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 1558605959

* Mitchel Resnick, ''Turtles, Termites, and Traffic Jams: Explorations in Massively Parallel Microworlds'' (1997) The MIT Press, ISBN 0262181622

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_behaviour swarm behaviour]
* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_animal_behaviour collective animal behaviour]

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Collective Processes]]

Gene

2012-05-13T16:46:19Z

Jfromm:

A '''gene''' is a genetic replicator, a basic unit of heredity in a living organism, and a segment of DNA that is involved in producing proteins. Genes shape life-forms, they are blueprints for biological bodies and recipes for stringing together amino acids
into proteins.

Genes are not the only form of replicators, and biological [[Evolution|evolution]] is not the only form of evolution. There are also [[Meme|memes]] in analogy with genes, and there is also cultural and cosmic evolution.

The genome of an organism is [http://blog.oup.com/2011/05/gene-mutation/ like a library] containing its blueprint, with information in books called chromosomes, and these chromosome books in turn are split into chapters called genes. These libraries contain all the biological information needed to construct and control a whole organism.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene Gene]

Gene

2012-05-13T16:44:43Z

Jfromm:

A '''gene''' is a genetic replicator, a basic unit of heredity in a living organism, and a segment of DNA that is involved in producing proteins. Genes shape life-forms, they are blueprints for biological bodies and recipes for stringing together amino acids
into proteins.

Genes are not the only form of replicators, and biological [[Evolution|evolution]] is not the only form of evolution. There are also [[Meme|memes]] in analogy with genes, and there is also cultural and cosmic evolution.

The genome of an organism is [http://blog.oup.com/2011/05/gene-mutation/ like a library] containing its blueprint, with information in books called chromosomes, and these chromosome books in turn are split into chapters called genes.

== Links ==

* Wikipedia entry for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene Gene]

Ecology of Mind

2012-05-13T16:34:48Z

Jfromm:

The metaphor '''Ecology of Mind''' has been coined by Gregory Bateson,
for instance in his book "Steps to an ecology of mind".
In the [[Society of Mind]] approach, we try to understand
the mind as a society, as a social group of interacting
agents. In the ecology of mind approach, we try to understand
the mind as an ecology, as a network of interactions.

Bateson's idea of an "Ecology of Mind" and Minsky's idea of a
"Society of Mind" have something in common.
Both are similar because they try to describe a whole system
of interacting entities - species for ecology and agents
for society. Both are very interesting, because they
maybe help to connect psychology with
neuroscience. A useful theory of this kind has much
in common with ecology or sociology: it must describe
[[Complex Adaptive System|complex adaptive systems]] which consist of many elements -
systems that are able to adjust and adapt themselves.

{| border="0" cellpadding="5" width="100%"
|-
! bgcolor="#70b0e0" width="25%" align="left" |
! bgcolor="#eedd90" width="25%" align="left" | Ecology of Mind
! bgcolor="#bbbbbb" width="25%" align="left" | Society of Mind
! bgcolor="#77bb99" align="left" | Biology
|-
| bgcolor="#80c0ff" valign="top" |
* System
* Individual
* Collective
* Total
* Flow
* Interaction

| bgcolor="#ffeea0" valign="top" |
* Ecosystem
* Species
* Populations
* Ecological Community
* Energy flow
* [[Food web]] (Predator/Prey)

| bgcolor="#cccccc" valign="top" |
* Cognitive System
* Agents
* Agent population
* Mind
* Information Flow
* Information Web (Actions/Perceptions)

| bgcolor="#88ccaa" valign="top" |
* Biological System
* Neurons
* Neural Assemblies
* Brain
* Information Flow
* Associations
|}

Ecology is the study of the ecosystem and the environment as
it relates to living organisms. It is the study of interactions
between organisms and their environment and tries to describe how
living systems are connected. A large variety of species and
a huge network of interactions - a [[Food web|food web]] - is characteristic
for Ecology. Gregory Bateson thinks the nature of the mind
can be understood as a network of connections and interactions
relating the individual with his society and his species
and with the universe at large.

While the key feature of an '''ecosystem''' is the transmission of energy
through its different components, the key feature of the '''mind''' is the
transmission of information through its different components. In the former
case, energy flows through the system, in the latter information (or electrical
energy). Instead of a food web we food have an information web
where information moves from perceptions to actions.
In this sense perceptions correspond to prey and actions to predators, respectively.

In the ecological pyramid, the trophic pyramid, there are different levels of consumers and producers, from primary producers at the bottom to secondary and tertiary consumers at the top. The brain is structured similarly in different levels of abstraction, from the primary sensory areas at the bottom to the secondary and tertiary areas and the prefrontal cortext at the top.

== Books ==

* Gregory Bateson, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Wfe2t_qzaHEC Steps to an Ecology of Mind], University Of Chicago Press, 1972

Ecology of Mind

2012-05-13T16:27:10Z

Jfromm:

The metaphor '''Ecology of Mind''' has been coined by Gregory Bateson,
for instance in his book "Steps to an ecology of mind".
In the [[Society of Mind]] approach, we try to understand
the mind as a society, as a social group of interacting
agents. In the ecology of mind approach, we try to understand
the mind as an ecology, as a network of interactions.

Bateson's idea of an "Ecology of Mind" and Minsky's idea of a
"Society of Mind" have something in common.
Both are similar because they try to describe a whole system
of interacting entities - species for ecology and agents
for society. Both are very interesting, because they
maybe help to connect psychology with
neuroscience. A useful theory of this kind has much
in common with ecology or sociology: it must describe
[[Complex Adaptive System|complex adaptive systems]] which consist of many elements -
systems that are able to adjust and adapt themselves.

{| border="0" cellpadding="5" width="100%"
|-
! bgcolor="#70b0e0" width="25%" align="left" |
! bgcolor="#eedd90" width="25%" align="left" | Ecology of Mind
! bgcolor="#bbbbbb" width="25%" align="left" | Society of Mind
! bgcolor="#77bb99" align="left" | Biology
|-
| bgcolor="#80c0ff" valign="top" |
* System
* Individual
* Collective
* Total
* Flow
* Interaction

| bgcolor="#ffeea0" valign="top" |
* Ecosystem
* Species
* Populations
* Ecological Community
* Energy flow
* [[Food web]] (Predator/Prey)

| bgcolor="#cccccc" valign="top" |
* Cognitive System
* Agents
* Agent population
* Mind
* Information Flow
* Information Web (Actions/Perceptions)

| bgcolor="#88ccaa" valign="top" |
* Biological System
* Neurons
* Neural Assemblies
* Brain
* Information Flow
* Associations
|}

Ecology is the study of the ecosystem and the environment as
it relates to living organisms. It is the study of interactions
between organisms and their environment and tries to describe how
living systems are connected. A large variety of species and
a huge network of interactions - a [[Food web|food web]] - is characteristic
for Ecology. Gregory Bateson thinks the nature of the mind
can be understood as a network of connections and interactions
relating the individual with his society and his species
and with the universe at large.

While the key feature of an '''ecosystem''' is the transmission of energy
through its different components, the key feature of the '''mind''' is the
transmission of information through its different components. In the former
case, energy flows through the system, in the latter information (or electrical
energy). Instead of a food web we food have an information web
where information moves from perceptions to actions.
In this sense perceptions correspond to prey and actions to predators, respectively.

== Books ==

* Gregory Bateson, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Wfe2t_qzaHEC Steps to an Ecology of Mind], University Of Chicago Press, 1972

Ecology of Mind

2012-05-13T16:24:07Z

Jfromm:

The metaphor '''Ecology of Mind''' has been coined by Gregory Bateson,
for instance in his book "Steps to an ecology of mind".
In the [[Society of Mind]] approach, we try to understand
the mind as a society, as a social group of interacting
agents. In the ecology of mind approach, we try to understand
the mind as an ecology, as a network of interactions.

Bateson's idea of an "Ecology of Mind" and Minsky's idea of a
"Society of Mind" have something in common.
Both are similar because they try to describe a whole system
of interacting entities - species for ecology and agents
for society. Both are very interesting, because they
maybe help to connect psychology with
neuroscience. A useful theory of this kind has much
in common with ecology or sociology: it must describe
[[Complex Adaptive System|complex adaptive systems]] which consist of many elements -
systems that are able to adjust and adapt themselves.

{| border="0" cellpadding="5" width="100%"
|-
! bgcolor="#70b0e0" width="25%" align="left" |
! bgcolor="#eedd90" width="25%" align="left" | Ecology of Mind
! bgcolor="#bbbbbb" width="25%" align="left" | Society of Mind
! bgcolor="#77bb99" align="left" | Biology
|-
| bgcolor="#80c0ff" valign="top" |
* System
* Individual
* Collective
* Total
* Flow
* Interaction

| bgcolor="#ffeea0" valign="top" |
* Ecosystem
* Species
* Populations
* Ecological Community
* Energy flow
* [[Food web]]

| bgcolor="#cccccc" valign="top" |
* Cognitive System
* Agents
* Agent population
* Mind
* Information Flow
* Information Web

| bgcolor="#88ccaa" valign="top" |
* Biological System
* Neurons
* Neural Assemblies
* Brain
* Information Flow
* Associations
|}

Ecology is the study of the ecosystem and the environment as
it relates to living organisms. It is the study of interactions
between organisms and their environment and tries to describe how
living systems are connected. A large variety of species and
a huge network of interactions - a [[Food web|food web]] - is characteristic
for Ecology. Gregory Bateson thinks the nature of the mind
can be understood as a network of connections and interactions
relating the individual with his society and his species
and with the universe at large.

While the key feature of an '''ecosystem''' is the transmission of energy
through its different components, the key feature of the '''mind''' is the
transmission of information through its different components. In the former
case, energy flows through the system, in the latter information (or electrical
energy). Instead of a food web we food have an information web
where information moves from perceptions to actions.
In this sense perceptions correspond to prey and actions to predators, respectively.

== Books ==

* Gregory Bateson, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Wfe2t_qzaHEC Steps to an Ecology of Mind], University Of Chicago Press, 1972

Evolution

2012-05-11T22:47:16Z

Jfromm:

{{SelfOrg}}

'''Evolution''' generally refers to any process of gradual or incremental change over time.
In the context of biology and life science, [[Biological Evolution|biological evolution]] is one of the most basic laws which
describes a change in the genetic makeup of a population as a result of natural selection.
It is the process by which all forms of plant and animal life change slowly over time because
of slight variations in the genes that one generation passes down to the next.

== Principles ==

Laws (esp. the differential equations from physics) describe the time-evolution of nature: the gradual or incremental change over time. Evolution itself is therefore the most general law, because it can also be applied to cosmic, economic, biological and social systems. In fact, evolution itself is the only thing in the last 14,6 billion years since the universe exist which has not changed significantly.

Evolution can occur in any changing system, as long as there is a [[code]] and the following three conditions are satisfied: (1) variation among individuals in some property or trait (2) inheritance from parents to their offspring of these traits (3) competition between individuals, selection of the individuals where the traits have the best effect on fitness and survival ability.

Thus the three major principles of evolution are

# Variation (Modification, Recombination)
# Inheritance (Descent, Replication)
# Natural Selection (Survival of the Fittest)

Evolution means '''descent with modifications''', or inheritance with variation. It requires 1.) a '''source of variation''' and diversity in form of recombination or mutation 2.) a '''source of continuity''' in form of replication or reproduction, and 3.) a '''source of purpose''' or function through selective pressure in form of natural selection, adaptation or "survival of the fittest". Natural selection results in a process of [[Adaptation|adaptation]]. [[Speciation]] is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise.

The principle of evolutionary relationship means related species have evolved from a common ancestor, and new species always come from pre-existing species. Taken to the extreme, this means every organic being evolved from a common ancestor. Charles Darwin proposed the theory of universal common descent through an evolutionary process in his book "On the Origin of Species", saying, "Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed".

== Application ==

Biologically inspired [[Evolutionary Algorithm]]s are a popular approach to optimize structures and to search for solutions of difficult combinatorial problems. Peter J. Bentley from the University College, London, has even proposed "software genes" to create useful evolving and developing software, see his New Scientist article [http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/P.Bentley/seedsarticle.html The Garden where perfect software grows].

== Resources ==

Charles Darwin - ''On the Origin of Species''

*[http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/texts/origin1859/origin_fm.html Origin of Species, 1st edn. (1859)] (British Library)
*[http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/texts/origin_6th/origin6th_fm.html Origin of Species, 6th edn. (1872)] (British Library)
*[http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/pdf/Origin_of_Species.pdf Full text in pdf format]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1228 Origin of Species, 1st Edition] (Project Gutenberg)
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2009 Origin of Species, 6th Edition] (Project Gutenberg)
*[http://www.bartleby.com/11/ Origin of Species] (Vol. XI. The Harvard Classics. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1909–14; Bartleby.com, 2001)

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Systems]]

Evolution

2012-05-11T22:44:21Z

Jfromm:

{{SelfOrg}}

'''Evolution''' generally refers to any process of gradual or incremental change over time.
In the context of biology and life science, [[Biological Evolution|biological evolution]] is one of the most basic laws which
describes a change in the genetic makeup of a population as a result of natural selection.
It is the process by which all forms of plant and animal life change slowly over time because
of slight variations in the genes that one generation passes down to the next.

== Principles ==

Laws (esp. the differential equations from physics) describe the time-evolution of nature: the gradual or incremental change over time. Evolution itself is therefore the most general law, because it can also be applied to cosmic, economic, biological and social systems. In fact, evolution itself is the only thing in the last 14,6 billion years since the universe exist which has not changed significantly.

Evolution can occur in any changing system, as long as there is a [[code]] and the following three conditions are satisfied: (1) variation among individuals in some property or trait (2) inheritance from parents to their offspring of these traits (3) competition between individuals, selection of the individuals where the traits have the best effect on fitness and survival ability.

Thus the three major principles of evolution are

# Variation (Modification, Recombination)
# Inheritance (Descent, Replication)
# Natural Selection (Survival of the Fittest)

Evolution means '''descent with modifications''', or inheritance with variation. It requires 1.) a '''source of variation''' and diversity in form of recombination or mutation 2.) a '''source of continuity''' in form of replication or reproduction, and 3.) a '''source of purpose''' or function through selective pressure in form of natural selection, adaptation or "survival of the fittest". Natural selection results in a process of [[Adaptation|adaptation]]. [[Speciation]] is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise.

== Application ==

Biologically inspired [[Evolutionary Algorithm]]s are a popular approach to optimize structures and to search for solutions of difficult combinatorial problems. Peter J. Bentley from the University College, London, has even proposed "software genes" to create useful evolving and developing software, see his New Scientist article [http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/P.Bentley/seedsarticle.html The Garden where perfect software grows].

== Resources ==

Charles Darwin - ''On the Origin of Species''

*[http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/texts/origin1859/origin_fm.html Origin of Species, 1st edn. (1859)] (British Library)
*[http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/texts/origin_6th/origin6th_fm.html Origin of Species, 6th edn. (1872)] (British Library)
*[http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/pdf/Origin_of_Species.pdf Full text in pdf format]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1228 Origin of Species, 1st Edition] (Project Gutenberg)
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2009 Origin of Species, 6th Edition] (Project Gutenberg)
*[http://www.bartleby.com/11/ Origin of Species] (Vol. XI. The Harvard Classics. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1909–14; Bartleby.com, 2001)

[[Category:Basic Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Principles]] [[Category:Evolutionary Systems]]

Path Dependence

2012-05-11T21:57:01Z

Jfromm:

{{SelfOrg}}

'''Path dependence''' exists when the outcome of a process depends on its past history, and is certainly a property of many [[Complex Adaptive System|complex adaptive systems]]. It occurs when taking one choice precludes another and influences the next. Apparently, [[Adaptive_System|adaptive systems]] are [[Context Dependence|context dependent]]. Repeated [[Context Dependence|context dependence]] can lead to path dependence if the context-dependent changes are permanent and durable. In this case the behavior in the current situation depends on the previous behaviors of the system during the history of existence, rather than simply on current conditions. Path dependence exists in a world of possibilities which depends on previous choices, if the kinds of doors we can go through depends on the kinds of doors we have opened before. Depending on the path of the system, the behavior, experience and outcomes may vary.

Thus path-dependent behavior occurs generally in [[Adaptive_System|adaptive systems]], if microscopic perturbations, minor fluctuations and small differences in local conditions are amplified and reinforced to macroscopic differences, especially in systems with positive feedback. Strong path dependence can be found often in systems with strong positive [[Feedback|feedback]] and is related to the [[Butterfly Effect|butterfly effect]], [[Lever_Point|lever points]] and [[Frozen Accident|frozen accidents]].

Econmic examples are the QWERTY layout in typewriters which is still used in computer keyboards, or file line endings for different operating systems (originally CRLF in Windows, and in LF in Linux and CR in Mac).

Phenomenal [[Consciousness|consciousness]] and [[Subjectivity|subjective experience]] are path-dependent and vary strongly from person to person, because each person has a different history, has met different people during the past, and is adapted to a slighty different world.

Path dependence is quite similar to Murray Gell-Mann's [[Frozen_Accident|frozen accidents]] and John H. Holland's [[Lever_Point|lever points]], although both focus more on the beginning of the path than on the path itself.

== References and Links ==

* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_dependence Main Wikipedia Entry for Path Dependence]
* C2 Wiki [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PathDependence Entry for Path Dependence]

* Notebook entries for [http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/qwerty.html QWERTY, Lock-In and Path Dependence]

[[Category:Basic Principles]]

Subjectivity

2012-05-11T21:56:02Z

Jfromm: /* The resolution */

'''Subjectivity''' is generally defined as a judgment based on individual personal impressions
and feelings or opinions rather than external facts. Subjective experience is responsible for the elusiveness of [[Consciousness|consciousness]]. It can be considered as observer-dependence or observer-dependent judgement, similar to [[Path Dependence|path dependence]] and [[Context Dependence|context dependence]], and it is indeed related to both. It can be considered as the result of [[Path Dependence|path dependent]] learning, which can only be understood by considering the corresponding path.

== The observer ==

Subjective experience always belongs to someone, the one who experiences it. Every subjective state/feeling/experience is always someone's state/feeling/experience, because subjective measurements, observations and experiences depend on the observer who observes the thing in question. The observer in turn must judge the thing by some criterion. In the last resort the genes of the observer are the jury which decides if the thing is good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant. Often there is a group of people and not a single person who makes subjective judgements. For example in subjective sports events like figure skating, there is always a committee appointed to judge a competition.

Therefore something is subjective if it belongs to someone, or if there is a jury necessary for the measurement:

* subjective: if there is a jury somewhere, for example a group of people which has to decide if s.th. is good or bad. The common unit to measure subjective things are points or votes.

* objective: if it can be measured by a measure or unit. Things are measured in exactly this unit.

== The dimension ==

Objective things exist in the external, objective reality and can be measure by a spatial or physical dimension like length, time or temperature. Unlike objective things, subjective things are measured in an internal dimension which is only accessible by the observer, the god/bad or pleasure/displeasure dimension of the observer:

* subjective: internal pleasure/displeasure dimension which determines if something is good or bad and spans all subjective feelings

* objective: external spatial or physical dimension which can be measured in a certain physical unit

== The resolution ==

To understand (the subjective experience of) other people, we must reach a basic form a empathy, i.e. we must try to walk along the same path they did, at least virtually. As Harper Lee writes in her novel "To Kill a Mockingbird", "you never really know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them." You need to walk in someone else's shoes in order to understand the person, you need to view the situation from their perspective.

Therefore to comprehend the subjective experience of other people, we must try to..

* understand where they come from and where they have been
* step into their shoes and walk along their path
* see the world from their perspective

== Links ==

* Wikipedia link to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness Consciousness]

[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Consciousness]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]